7.2.1 Levels of Organisation

• Photosynthetic organismsare theproducersof biomass for life on Earth
• They produce their own food using energy from the Sun
• A producer has the following特征:
• • They are at thestartof everyfood chain(the first trophic level, which is always the biggest)
  • They canphotosynthesise(producers are normally green plants or algae)
  • They makeglucoseby photosynthesis
  • They use this glucose to produce other biological molecules, which then make up the producer’sbiomass(some of the glucose produced is also used in respiration to release energy for the cell)
  • In extreme environments (such as underwater volcanic vents) the producers are not photoautotrophs but chemoautotrophs who produce organic molecules without using energy from the Sun)

• A simple way to show the feeding interactions between the organisms in acommunityis with afood chain
• You need to know the terms given to each step in a food chain:

1. Producer: food chains always begin with a producer
2. Primaryconsumer: producers are eaten by primary consumers (herbivores/omnivores)
3. Secondary consumer: primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers (carnivores/omnivores)
4. Tertiary consumer: secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers (carnivores/omnivores)

An example of a food chain

• A food chain shows thetransfer of energyfrom one organism to the next
• The source of all energy in a food chain islight energy from the Sun
• 食物链中的箭头显示的转移ergy from one level of the food chain to the next

Food chains table

• Ecologyis the branch of biology that studies thedistributionandabundanceof species, theinteractionsbetween species, and theinteractionsbetweenspeciesand theirabioticenvironment
• Ecologists are biologists that study these interactions by investigating ecosystems
• You need to know how ecologists determine thedistributionandabundanceof species in an ecosystem usingquadratsandtransects
• You need to understand how they usequadratsandtransectsin order to do this

Quadrats

• Quadrats are square frames made of wood or wire
• They can be a variety of sizes eg. 0.25m²or 1m²
• They are placed on the ground and the organisms within them are recorded
• They can be used to measure the abundance ofplantsorslow-moving animals

Using a quadrat to investigate population size or distribution

• Quadrats can be used to measure abundance by recording:
  • The number of an individual species: the total number of individuals of a single species (eg. buttercups) is recorded
  • Species richness: the total number of different species (but not the number of individuals of each species) is recorded
  • Percentage cover: the approximate percentage of the quadrat area in which an individual species is found is recorded (this method is used when it is difficult to count individuals of the plant species being recorded eg. grass or moss

How to estimate percentage cover of one or more species using a quadrat

Transects

• A transect is used to measure how the abundance of a specieschanges as you move along a changing habitat,如。改变高度在一个山坡上,或从打开的n field to dense woodland, or along the shoreline at the coast
  • Alinecalled a transect is set up through the changing habitat you want to investigate with a tape measure
  • A quadrat is then placed atregular intervals(eg. every 5 metres) along the transect
  • At each interval, the quadrat can be used to record the number of an individual species, species richness or percentage cover

• Transects are useful for investigating how the abundance of a species is affected by anabiotic factor(e.g. light intensity, moisture levels, soil depth, altitude etc)

An example of a transect on a hillside. A quadrat is placed at regular intervals (every 10m of altitude gained) and counts the number of individuals (of the species being investigated eg. buttercups) in each quadrat

• When studying the abundance of organisms, you should be able to:
  • Understand the terms mean, mode and median
  • Calculate arithmetic means
  • Plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales for the axes

• Producers are eaten by primary consumers, which in turn may be eaten by secondary consumers who are themselves eaten by tertiary consumers
• Consumers that kill and eat other animals arepredators, and those eaten areprey
• In a stable community the numbers of predators and prey rise and fall in cycles
• You should be able to interpret graphs used to model predator-prey cycles

An example of a graph used to model a predator-prey cycle between the Canadian lynx and the snowshoe hare

• The graph above demonstrates some of the key patterns of predator-prey cycles:

1. The number of predatorsincreasesas there ismore preyavailable
2. The number of prey thendecreasesas there are nowmore predators
3. The number of predatorsdecreasesas there is nowless preyavailable
4. The number of preyincreasesas there are nowfewer predators
5. The cycle now repeats